The reports and summary 'Understanding the Online Recruitment of children in criminal exploitation' is based on a research project led by Dr Anna Skeels (Cardiff University) and Hannah Stott (Safe to Grow) in partnership with Barnardo's Independent Child Trafficking Guardianship (ICTIG) service. The research examines the digital platforms and tactics used by perpetrators, the harms experienced by children, and the effectiveness of existing legal and policy responses.
The findings highlight the urgent need for a coordinated, child-centred response that recognises the interconnected nature of online and offline exploitation, and ensures children are treated as victims of abuse rather than offenders.
This project was funded by the Modern Slavery and Human Rights Policy and Evidence Centre (PEC), at the University of Oxford, which in turn is funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC).
The PEC has actively supported the production of the research summary; however, the views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily of the funders.
Background
Child criminal exploitation is a form of child abuse in which children are manipulated, coerced or deceived into criminal activity for the benefit of others. This can include drug trafficking, money laundering, theft, fraud and other offences, often accompanied by threats, violence and psychological harm.
As digital platforms have become increasingly embedded in children's lives, perpetrators have developed new ways to identify, contact, groom and exploit children online. Recruitment can occur through social media, messaging applications and other digital spaces, often moving between online and offline environments.
Despite growing concern about this issue, there has been limited research examining how children are recruited into criminal exploitation online in the UK and whether existing legislation and safeguarding frameworks adequately address the risks.
This research seeks to address these evidence gaps by examining recruitment pathways, perpetrators' tactics, the harms experienced by children and potential measures to prevent and disrupt exploitation. It also explores how online recruitment is addressed across existing UK legislation, policy and guidance.
The study draws on a review of academic and other literature, 12 interviews with practitioners supporting children affected by exploitation, engagement with the Modern Slavery PEC's Lived Experience Advisory Panel and a legal and policy gap analysis covering 59 documents.
The findings demonstrate that online recruitment into criminal exploitation cannot be addressed in isolation from wider forms of child exploitation. Effective responses must recognise the connections between digital and physical environments, different forms of harm and the systems responsible for protecting children.
Key findings
- Children are being recruited into criminal exploitation across multiple online platforms. Recruitment is taking place at scale, with perpetrators using evolving and interconnected tactics across digital environments. Many children affected remain unidentified, while perpetrators are not sufficiently investigated.
- Online recruitment exposes children to multiple, overlapping forms of exploitation. The research identifies ten online recruitment pathways into child criminal exploitation (CCE), demonstrating how criminal, sexual and other forms of exploitation intersect. Existing legal and policy responses often address these harms separately, failing to recognise their full complexity.
- Current prevention and safeguarding responses are inadequate. Practitioners report feeling overwhelmed and under-equipped to identify and disrupt online recruitment. Limited data, research and opportunities for children to participate in developing solutions further undermine effective prevention and support.
- Fragmented legal and policy frameworks create gaps in protection. The main challenge is not necessarily the absence of legislation, but the lack of coordination between digital regulation, child protection, criminal justice and modern slavery frameworks. Inconsistent understandings of CCE contribute to variations in how children are identified and supported.
- A coordinated, child-centred response is urgently needed. Addressing online recruitment requires a system-wide approach that builds on existing work to tackle child exploitation, both online and offline, while strengthening safeguarding, prevention and efforts to hold perpetrators accountable.
Key recommendations
The research makes eight recommendations for the UK Government, regulators and other relevant bodies to strengthen the prevention, identification and response to online recruitment into child criminal exploitation.
1. Strengthen online safety legislation and regulation.
The UK Government should include CCE as a priority offence under Schedule 7 of the Online Safety Act 2023. Ofcom should also explicitly recognise CCE in its Children's Code of Practice and relevant registers of online safety risks, acknowledging its connections with grooming, sexual exploitation and other online harms.
2. Establish clearer and more consistent definitions of child exploitation.
The Ministry of Justice should ensure that statutory guidance on CCE explicitly recognises online recruitment and its connections with offline exploitation. The Home Office and Department for Education should develop a statutory definition of child exploitation that encompasses different and overlapping forms of abuse.
3. Embed a child-first, rights-based approach.
The UK Government and devolved administrations should ensure that children affected by exploitation are consistently recognised as victims of abuse rather than offenders, with their rights and safeguarding needs prioritised across digital regulation, child protection and criminal justice responses.
4. Improve coordination, data collection and safeguarding standards.
Governments should develop a cross-government strategy for gathering and sharing information on child exploitation and establish UK-wide minimum standards for prevention, identification, safeguarding and support. This would help reduce inconsistencies between agencies and improve outcomes for children.
5. Equip frontline practitioners to identify and respond to online exploitation.
The Independent Anti-Slavery Commissioner, relevant government departments and devolved equivalents should strengthen awareness, training and practical resources for frontline professionals, guardians and trusted adults working with children at risk.
The research also highlights the urgent need for further research involving children directly affected by online recruitment into criminal exploitation, to ensure that future interventions reflect their experiences, rights and needs.
